Underwater Hockey Rules: How to Play Underwater Hockey

How to Play Underwater Hockey

Underwater hockey is a unique and thrilling sport that combines swimming skills with teamwork and strategy. Played at the bottom of a swimming pool, this lesser-known aquatic game challenges athletes to maneuver a puck into the opposing team's goal while holding their breath. With its origins dating back to the 1950s, underwater hockey has gained a dedicated following worldwide, attracting players who seek an exciting alternative to traditional pool-based sports.

This article aims to explore the ins and outs of underwater hockey, covering everything from its history to essential skills and strategies. Readers will learn about the equipment needed, such as snorkels, sticks, and gloves, as well as the rules that govern gameplay. The piece will also delve into team composition, tournament formats, and training methods for aspiring players. Additionally, it will address safety considerations to ensure a fun and secure experience for all participants. Whether you're curious about trying underwater hockey or simply want to learn more about this fascinating sport, this guide has you covered.

History of Underwater Hockey

Origins

Underwater hockey, originally known as "Octopush," has its roots in the United Kingdom. The sport was invented in 1954 by Alan Blake, a founder-member of the Southsea Sub-Aqua Club ¹. Blake, along with fellow divers John Ventham, Jack Willis, and Frank Lilleker, first played this unique game in the Guildhall Baths in Portsmouth ^{1 2}.

The name "Octopush" had a specific meaning: "octo-" referred to the eight-player teams, while "-push" came from the small bat used to move the puck, called a "pusher" ¹. The original equipment included an uncoated lead puck nicknamed a "squid" and a goal initially called a "cuttle" but later renamed a "gulley" ¹.

The first rules of the game were tested in a two-on-two match in 1954. Following this, Alan Blake announced the creation of "Octopush" in the November 1954 issue of the British Sub-Aqua Club's official magazine, Neptune ¹. The sport quickly gained traction, and the first Octopush competition took place in early 1955. This inaugural tournament was a three-way contest between teams from Southsea, Bournemouth, and Brighton underwater hockey clubs, with Southsea emerging victorious ^{1 2}.

Interestingly, the British Navy played a role in the sport's development. They adopted underwater hockey in the 1950s to help keep their divers fit and improve their ability to work efficiently underwater ³. This practical application helped solidify the sport's foundation and contributed to its growth.

Global Spread

From its humble beginnings in the UK, underwater hockey soon spread to other parts of the world. In the mid to late 1950s, the sport reached Durban, South Africa ^{1 2}. It gained popularity among spearfishermen of the Durban Undersea Club (DUC) who sought alternative ways to exercise when poor visibility in the summer seas prevented their usual activities. The first games in Durban were played in the pool of club member Max Doveton, but the sport's popularity soon led to weekly contests in a municipal pool ¹.

The Americas got their first taste of underwater hockey in 1962 when Norm Leibeck, an unconventional Australian scuba diving instructor and dive shop owner, introduced the sport to a Vancouver dive club in Canada ^{1 2}. This introduction led to the formation of the Underwater Hockey Association of British Columbia (UHABC) a decade later, which received support from the BC government ¹.

Australia embraced underwater hockey in 1966, thanks again to Norm Leibeck, who returned from Canada with his Canadian bride, Marlene ^{1 2}. The sport quickly gained traction in Australia, attracting players from diverse backgrounds. The first Australian Underwater Hockey Championships were held in Margaret River, Western Australia, in 1975 ¹. The sport's growth in Australia continued, with a Women's division added to the championships in 1981 and a Junior division introduced in 1990 ¹.

In Asia, underwater hockey made its debut in the Philippines in the late 1970s, spreading through the scuba diving community ^{1 2}. The sport has seen significant development in Asia over the past 15 years ⁴.

Today, underwater hockey has a global presence. It is recognized by the International Olympic Committee and governed by the World Underwater Federation (CMAS) ⁴. The sport is now played in more than 40 countries, with an estimated 15,000 participants worldwide ⁴. Recently, underwater hockey made its debut in a multisport, international competition at the Southeast Asian Games in the Philippines, marking a significant milestone in its journey from a local British pastime to a globally recognized sport ⁴.

Essential Skills for Underwater Hockey

Underwater hockey demands a unique set of skills that combine aquatic prowess with strategic gameplay. Players need to develop proficiency in three key areas: breath control, swimming techniques, and puck handling. These skills form the foundation for success in this challenging sport.

Breath Control

Breath control is a fundamental aspect of underwater hockey. Players must hold their breath for extended periods while maneuvering and competing for the puck. Contrary to popular belief, the average submersion time in underwater hockey is relatively short. A study measuring 2000 submersion times during games found that the average time spent underwater was 11.0 seconds, with a range of 4 to 27 seconds ⁵. This is significantly shorter than the one to three minutes often reported in the lay press.

To improve breath-holding capacity, players can practice the following techniques:

1. Deep breathing: Take deep breaths before diving to saturate the lungs with oxygen.
2. Apnea training: Gradually increase breath-holding time through static breath-holds and timed underwater swims.
3. Relaxation techniques: Stay calm underwater to conserve oxygen and prevent unnecessary exertion.

It's crucial to note that hyperventilation should be limited. Taking no more than 2 to 3 deep breaths before submerging is recommended to expel residual CO2 and prolong underwater time. However, excessive hyperventilation can lead to shallow-water blackout, posing a drowning risk ⁶.

Swimming Techniques

Efficient swimming is essential for maneuvering quickly and effectively in underwater hockey. Players should focus on developing the following techniques:

1. Streamline position: Maintain body alignment to minimize water resistance.
2. Fin swimming: Master both flutter kick and dolphin kick techniques.
   • Flutter kick: Involves alternating leg strokes, offering good control and maneuverability.
   • Dolphin kick: Mimics a dolphin's undulating motion, providing faster speeds on long runs at the expense of control.
3. Diving methods:
   • Head-first (Tuck) dive: Ideal for forwards, allowing quick acceleration in any direction upon reaching the pool bottom.
   • Feet-first (Kelp) dive: Typically used by backs, enabling them to reach the pool floor in an upright, defensive position.

Players should also practice hovering at the pool bottom, which allows them to remain close to the action and maintain a relaxed, balanced position ready for quick movements ⁶.

Puck Handling

Puck handling is a critical skill in underwater hockey, requiring precise control and maneuverability. Key aspects of puck handling include:

1. Proper stick grip: Master the standard grip and variations like the monkey grip and fingertip grip for specific maneuvers.
2. Puck movement techniques:
   • Tic-tac: Moving the puck from the front to the back of the stick and vice versa.
   • Front to back roll: An alternative to the tic-tac for changing puck position.
   • Infinity swerve: Moving the puck throughout a player's range of motion on the front side of the stick.
   • Half yin-yang: Using the back of the stick to move the puck across the front and down the stick-hand side.
3. Wall play: Develop techniques for moving the puck off the pool wall, such as portions of the tic-tac or using the wall for a roll and scoop maneuver.
4. Passing and settling: Practice quick puck settling, especially when receiving high passes or dealing with bouncing pucks ⁷.

By focusing on these essential skills – breath control, swimming techniques, and puck handling – players can significantly improve their performance in underwater hockey. Regular practice and training in these areas will contribute to better gameplay and increased enjoyment of this unique and challenging sport.

Team Composition and Roles

Underwater hockey teams typically consist of six players in the water, each with specific roles and responsibilities. The most common formation is the 3-3 setup, which divides the team into three forwards and three backs ⁸. This formation provides a balanced approach to both offense and defense, allowing teams to adapt quickly to changing game situations.

Forward Positions

The forward line in underwater hockey plays a crucial role in driving the team's offensive strategy. The three forward positions are:

1. Left Forward
2. Center/Strike
3. Right Forward

These players are primarily responsible for pushing the puck towards the opposing team's goal ⁸. The Center/Strike position has a unique role at the start of the game, racing to be the first to reach the puck in the center of the pool. This initial sprint can be performed either by swimming freestyle on the surface and then diving or by swimming underwater the entire distance ⁸.

Forwards have several key responsibilities:

• Staying ahead of the puck, positioning themselves between the puck and the goal they are trying to score on
• Receiving forward passes from wings, center, or full back
• Driving the puck forward when in possession
• Assisting in defense by coming back towards the play and interfering with opponents
• Back-picking opponents and blocking passing lanes to disrupt the opposing team's offense
• Dropping at the same time as their forward partner to drive the puck forward in pairs, using 2-on-1 situations (pinches) to beat opposing backs ⁹

Defensive Positions

The defensive line in underwater hockey consists of three positions:

1. Left Half Back
2. Full/Center Back
3. Right Half Back

These players form the last line of defense and play a crucial role in protecting their team's goal. Unlike field hockey, underwater hockey does not have a dedicated goalkeeper. Instead, any defensive player can stop a goal, with the backs being the primary goal defenders ⁸.

The defensive positions have specific roles and responsibilities:

• Positioning themselves between the goal they are defending and the puck
• Clearing the puck away from the front of the goal and towards the walls in the defensive zone
• Supporting the forwards by being ready to receive passes and initiate counterattacks
• Covering attacking players during offensive pushes by the opposing team
• Working together with forwards to ensure there are more defending players than attacking opponents during defensive stands ¹⁰

In addition to the basic 3-3 formation, some teams employ a more specialized 2-3-1 setup. This formation consists of two forwards, two wings, a center, and a full back. Each position in this setup has specific responsibilities:

• Wings: Cover their respective sides of the formation, with the "strong side" wing diving behind the puck to drive it forward and the "weak side" wing staying ready for swing passes or to engage opposing players
• Center: Focuses on distributing the puck to teammates and preventing opponents from driving through the center of the formation
• Full Back (also called "stopper" or "goalie"): Responsible for covering gaps in the midline and can drop into wing or center positions as needed ⁹

Effective team play in underwater hockey requires seamless coordination between forward and defensive positions. Players must be able to transition quickly between offense and defense, adapting to the fast-paced nature of the game. By understanding and executing their specific roles, team members can work together to create scoring opportunities while maintaining a strong defensive presence.

Underwater Hockey Strategies

Underwater hockey demands a combination of strategic thinking and quick decision-making. Players must adapt their tactics based on their position on the pool floor and the flow of the game. Effective strategies involve both offensive plays and defensive formations, each crucial for success in this unique aquatic sport.

Offensive Plays

Offensive strategies in underwater hockey focus on moving the puck towards the opponent's goal while maintaining control and creating scoring opportunities. The pool can be divided into thirds, with each section requiring different tactical approaches:

1. Center Third: This area serves as a transition zone from defense to attack. Players should aim to bring the puck off the wall and swing it to the far side, seeking open water to set up an attack on the opponent's goal ¹¹. While a straight line to the center of the opponent's goal is the fastest route, it may not always be the path of least resistance. Players must exercise caution to avoid poor passes or half-hearted swings that could lead to counterattacks.

2. Offensive Third: This is where the team goes on the offensive. The primary objective is to attack and score, preferably from the wide front of the goal ¹¹. Key strategies include:

   • Funneling the puck towards the center and the goal, avoiding the corners where opponents are typically stronger.
   • Having multiple players down within 5-10 feet of the goal to increase pressure and scoring chances.
   • Aiming to finish plays and score without excuses when in front of the opponent's goal.

A common offensive formation is the 2-3-1 setup, which consists of two forwards, two wings, a center, and a full back ⁹. Each position has specific responsibilities:

• Forwards: Stay ahead of the puck, positioned between the puck and the goal they're attacking. They receive forward passes and drive the puck towards the goal. Forwards should drop simultaneously to create 2-on-1 situations (pinches) against opposing backs ⁹.

• Wings: Cover their respective sides of the formation. The "strong side" wing dives behind the puck to drive it forward, while the "weak side" wing remains ready for swing passes or to engage opposing players ⁹.

• Center: Focuses on distributing the puck and preventing opponents from driving through the center of the formation ⁹.

• Full Back: Covers gaps in the midline and can drop into wing or center positions as needed. They may also initiate deep swings ⁹.

The main offensive strategy involves cycling the puck off the wall and back into the center of the pool ¹². This creates opportunities for forwards to drive straight towards the goal. As players get closer to the goal, they should funnel all pucks towards the center, maintaining a central position to keep the puck in the middle of the goal ¹².

Defensive Formations

Defensive strategies are equally important in underwater hockey, focusing on protecting the team's goal and regaining possession of the puck. The defensive third of the pool requires specific tactics:

1. Defending Third: The primary objective in this area is to move the puck directly to the nearest side ¹¹. Players should avoid lingering, curling, or passing in this zone. It's crucial to prevent the opposing team from driving the puck through the center towards the goal.

2. Defensive Positioning: Defenders should position themselves between the goal they're defending and the puck ⁹. This formation creates a barrier that makes it difficult for opponents to score.

3. Clearing the Puck: When under pressure near their own goal, defenders should focus on clearing the puck away from the front of the goal and towards the walls in the defensive zone ⁹.

4. Supporting Forwards: Defenders play a crucial role in initiating counterattacks. They should be ready to receive passes from teammates and quickly transition to offense ⁹.

5. Covering Attackers: During offensive pushes by the opposing team, defenders must effectively cover attacking players, limiting their scoring opportunities ⁹.

6. Numerical Advantage: Defensive players should work in tandem with forwards to ensure there are more defending players than attacking opponents during defensive stands ⁹.

By implementing these offensive and defensive strategies, underwater hockey teams can effectively control the flow of the game, create scoring opportunities, and protect their goal. The key to success lies in seamless transitions between offense and defense, adaptability to changing game situations, and effective communication among team members.

Tournament Formats

League Play

Underwater hockey tournaments often employ a league play format during the initial stages. This structure allows teams to compete against multiple opponents, accumulating points and establishing rankings. In the 21st CMAS Underwater Hockey World Championships, league play was utilized to determine seedings for the knockout stages ¹³. Teams participated in round-robin matches within their groups, with points earned against other qualifying teams carried forward to the Division A points table ¹³. This approach ensures that early performances have a lasting impact on a team's tournament trajectory.

League play typically involves a series of matches where each team faces every other team in their group. This format provides a comprehensive assessment of team strengths and allows for strategic planning as the tournament progresses. For instance, in the women's grade of the 21st CMAS World Championships, the qualifying section determined the composition of two divisions: Division A (top 8 teams) and Division B (remaining 5 teams) ¹³.

Knockout Tournaments

Following the league play phase, underwater hockey tournaments often transition to a knockout format. This stage intensifies the competition, as teams face elimination with each match. The 21st CMAS Underwater Hockey World Championships featured quarter-finals, semi-finals, and finals across various age and gender categories ¹³.

Knockout tournaments create high-stakes scenarios, with teams vying for advancement to the next round. For example, the quarter-finals in the 21st CMAS World Championships were anticipated to be closely contested matches, highlighting the importance of this stage in determining the eventual champions ¹³.

The World Underwater Hockey Championships, organized by the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS), have been held biennially since 1980 ¹⁴. These championships have evolved over time to include various divisions:

1. Men's and Women's Tournaments: Introduced in 1980 and 1982, respectively ¹⁴.
2. Master's Tournaments: Men's master's added in 1992, women's master's in 1998 ¹⁴.
3. Youth Divisions: U-19 divisions for both men and women established in 2004 ¹⁴.
4. U-23 Division: Introduced in 2013 alongside the U-19 division ¹.

The tournament structure has undergone several changes over the years. In 2007, CMAS attempted to create the CMAS World Games, an Olympic-style event encompassing all CMAS-governed sports ¹⁴. However, this initiative was short-lived due to scheduling conflicts with pre-established calendars ¹⁴.

A significant development occurred in 2008 when the World Aquachallenge Association (WAA) organized a rival world championship event in Durban, South Africa ¹⁴. This event, while poorly attended, is considered by many to be the official 2008 World Championship ¹⁴. The schism was short-lived, and CMAS resumed control of world championship events from 2009 onwards ¹⁴.

Currently, CMAS administers world championship events in various age and gender divisions every two years ¹⁴. The most recent championship was held in Quebec City, Canada, in 2018 ¹⁴. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, the tournament schedule was adjusted, with the 2023 event marking the resumption of international competition ¹.

In addition to world championships, CMAS also organizes the Underwater Hockey European Championships biennially, alternating with the world championships ¹. These European events focus solely on elite competitions, without master's or youth divisions ¹.

Training for Underwater Hockey

Training for underwater hockey requires a combination of fitness drills and skill development exercises. Players need to focus on improving their breath-holding capacity, swimming techniques, and puck handling abilities to excel in this unique aquatic sport.

Fitness Drills

Fitness drills for underwater hockey are designed to enhance players' endurance, speed, and overall physical conditioning. All exercises are performed with essential equipment, including a mask, snorkel, and fins ¹⁵. These drills incorporate both leg and arm movements, with leg exercises utilizing either flutter or dolphin kick techniques ¹⁵.

A typical training session might include the following components:

1. Warm-up: Begin with a 200m crawl swim at 60% intensity, using both arms and legs. This helps prepare the body for more intense exercises ¹⁵.

2. Surface Sprints: Perform 4 x 50m surface sprints at 100% intensity, using crawl technique with arms and legs. Rest for 1 minute between lengths and 2 minutes after completing the set ¹⁵.

3. Counting Lines: Execute 8 x 25m drills, alternating between underwater and surface swimming. This exercise involves touching the pool lines with your hand, following a pattern of 1 line under (legs only) and 1 line on the surface (arms and legs) ¹⁵.

4. Up and Unders: Complete 8 x 25m drills, combining 12.5m underwater swimming (legs only) with 12.5m surface swimming (crawl). Maintain an 80% intensity level with no rest between lengths ¹⁵.

5. Underwater Sprints: Perform 6 x 25m underwater sprints at 80% intensity, resting for 30 seconds between lengths ¹⁵.

To maximize the effectiveness of these drills, players should adhere to specific rest periods. Longer rest intervals (2 minutes, 1 minute, and 30 seconds) are taken on the side of the pool, while shorter 15-second rests are done in the water ¹⁵.

Skill Development

Skill development in underwater hockey focuses on improving puck control, maneuverability, and strategic play. Players should practice the following techniques to enhance their performance:

1. Front of Blade Control: Mastering puck control on the front of the blade is a fundamental skill for every player. The Figure-8 drill is an excellent exercise to develop this ability ¹⁶. To perform this drill:

   • Move the puck in front of your body from side to side, creating a figure-8 pattern.
   • Exaggerate the puck movement, moving it from the right of your right shoulder past your left shoulder.
   • Keep your shoulders square with the pool bottom, avoiding torso rotation ¹⁶.

2. Puck Rolling: This technique offers several benefits, including misleading opponents, executing quick maneuvers, and shielding the puck ¹⁶. To practice puck rolling:

   • Roll the puck from side to side on the blade.
   • Ensure the puck never leaves the blade.
   • Apply a hard spin to keep the puck on the pool bottom and prevent it from flipping on its edge ¹⁶.

3. V-Drill: This more advanced drill involves executing a "V" pattern with the puck while continuously spinning it. Key points to remember:

   • Keep the stick tip on the pool bottom throughout the drill.
   • Focus on feeling the puck roll around the stick tip, especially at the turning points of the "V" ¹⁶.

4. Breath-Holding Techniques: Improving breath-holding skills is crucial for underwater hockey. Players should practice staying relaxed underwater to conserve oxygen. A useful warm-up exercise is the "BOGDAT" (Breathe Once Go Down And Touch the floor) ⁶. To enhance underwater time:

   • Take 2 to 3 deep breaths before submerging to expel residual CO2.
   • Never take more than 3 deep breaths to avoid the risk of shallow-water blackout ⁶.

5. Diving Techniques: Players should master both head-first ("Tuck") and feet-first ("Kelp") diving methods:

   • Head-First Dive: Ideal for forwards, allowing quick acceleration in any direction upon reaching the pool bottom.
   • Feet-First Dive: Typically used by backs, enabling them to reach the pool floor in an upright, defensive position ⁶.

By incorporating these fitness drills and skill development exercises into their training regimen, underwater hockey players can significantly improve their performance and enjoyment of the sport.

Safety Considerations

Underwater hockey, like any aquatic sport, requires strict adherence to safety protocols to ensure the well-being of all participants. Players and officials must be aware of potential hazards and take necessary precautions to minimize risks.

Pre-game Checks

Before engaging in underwater hockey activities, several safety measures should be implemented:

1. Pool Area Safety: The pool deck is often wet, hard, and potentially slippery. Horseplay, running, pushing, or throwing objects must not be tolerated ¹⁷. Officials from WAUWH, including the Games Commissioner, Coach, Captain, Club Delegate, Deck Referee, or Committee Members, are responsible for controlling such behavior.

2. Equipment Inspection: All players must wear approved protective gear, including:

   • Water polo style cap with hard plastic ear covers
   • Latex (or similar material) covered glove for the playing hand(s)
   • Mask fitted with tempered glass
   • Fins without hard plastic blades, sharp edges, or sharp buckles
   • An approved internal mouth guard or an external type fitted to the mask or snorkel ¹⁷

3. Electrical Safety: All electrical cords, appliances, and equipment must be approved by the local Electrical Authority. Leads and connections should be secured and protected from water. Cords crossing walkways must be taped, covered, and highlighted to prevent tripping hazards ¹⁷.

4. Hygiene Measures: Players should shower and disinfect their hands after each session. The puck should only be handled using the provided gloves ¹⁸.

Emergency Procedures

In case of emergencies, the following procedures should be followed:

1. Bleeding Incidents: Any person bleeding must immediately leave the pool and be escorted to the nearest first aid post. If a bleeding player refuses to leave during a match, the chief referee must stop the game and award a forfeit to the opposing team ¹⁷.

2. Hypoxic Blackout Prevention: Extensive breath-holding is not allowed during underwater hockey activities. Players should be aware of the risks associated with hyperventilation and long-duration breath-holding ¹⁹.

3. Drowning Prevention: All underwater hockey activities should occur under direct supervision. Athletes must remain vigilant, scanning the pool for injured or unconscious players. Players should never remain motionless in the water, as this is a sign of potential unconsciousness ¹⁹.

4. Injury Reporting: All injuries requiring medical attention must be reported to the local USOA representative and the USOA Underwater Sports National Safety Director. An incident/accident form must be completed and submitted monthly ¹⁹.

By adhering to these safety guidelines and maintaining constant vigilance, players and officials can significantly reduce the risks associated with underwater hockey and ensure a safe and enjoyable experience for all participants.

Conclusion

Underwater hockey stands out as a unique and challenging aquatic sport that has an impact on players' physical fitness, strategic thinking, and teamwork skills. From its humble beginnings in the UK to its current global presence, this exciting game has evolved to include various tournament formats and specialized training methods. The combination of breath control, swimming techniques, and puck handling creates a dynamic environment that pushes athletes to their limits while fostering a strong sense of camaraderie.

As the sport continues to grow, safety remains a top priority to ensure enjoyable and secure experiences for all participants. By following proper training techniques, adhering to safety guidelines, and embracing the spirit of fair play, underwater hockey enthusiasts can fully immerse themselves in this thrilling underwater adventure. Whether you're a seasoned player or a curious newcomer, underwater hockey offers a world of excitement and challenge beneath the surface, waiting to be explored.

FAQs

1. How is underwater hockey played?
Underwater hockey is played in a pool that measures 25 meters by 15 meters and has a depth of 2 to 4 meters. The game is divided into two halves, each lasting 15 minutes, with a three-minute halftime break. Each team can call one timeout per half, which lasts for 60 seconds.

2. What is the duration of an underwater hockey match?
An underwater hockey match consists of two halves, each 15 minutes long, with a halftime interval of three minutes. Teams are also allowed a 60-second timeout during each half.

3. How long do underwater hockey players typically stay submerged?
Underwater hockey players generally stay submerged for about 20 to 30 seconds during play. However, some players can remain underwater for up to two to three minutes, especially when defending the goal.

4. What are the different player positions in underwater hockey?
In underwater hockey, there are six main positions divided among the players: three forwards and three backs. The forwards include the Left Forward, Center/Strike, and Right Forward, focusing primarily on offense and advancing the puck towards the opponent's goal. The backs consist of the Left Half Back, Full/Center Back, and Right Half Back, who primarily focus on defense.

References

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